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Warfare and the Civic Order in Early Rome.

By: lello

War occupied a central place in the civic and religious structure of many city-states, but this was especially true of Rome. By the fourth century, Rome had evolved a pattern of warfare that centered on campaigns undertaken almost every year, a level of intensity and regularity that is unique among ancient city states. In the process, warfare came to be deeply entrenched in Roman political and religious life, shaping the highest offices as well as the lives and careers both of the community’s leaders and of its citizens.

Consuls and military tribunes with consular powers, the chief officials of Rome, had the primary responsibility for making war. When the new consuls entered office each March, they began the process of levying the army or armies that would conduct the year’s campaigns. Rituals and sacrifices accompanied the raising of an army. Victory in battle was thought to be the result of divine favor, and for military leaders it was a key obligation to perform properly the rituals that secured this. Such regular campaigning in turn shaped the duties of Rome’s highest officials, and determined the qualifications desired in a leader.
Military service was also one of the central duties of the citizen body. The boundaries between citizen and soldier were neither firm nor long-lasting, and each year large numbers of adult males performed both roles. Soon after the new consuls had entered office, citizens eligible for military service came to Rome for the levy, or dilectus, in which some were chosen to be soldiers in the consuls’ armies in the upcoming season. On occasion, an additional levy could be held later in the year if it proved to be necessary. After a season’s campaigning, soldiers were discharged, returning to their places in civil life.

In Rome, as in other city-states, warfare followed a clear seasonal pattern. Direct attacks on cities or long sieges of fortified places were relatively rare. Instead, commanders of invading armies more often sought to interfere with the ability of the inhabitants of the targeted city to cultivate their lands and feed their families. Offensive operations usually began before the grain harvest, which in central Italy took place in late May or early June. After marching into an enemy’s territory, soldiers of the invading force would live off the land, harvesting the nearly ripe crops in the field and attempting to prevent the defenders from doing the same. Defenders could seek to prevent the enemy from inflicting such damage by fighting a formal battle; alternatively, if they were weaker or did not wish to risk such an engagement, they could retreat within the fortifications of their city and wait until the invaders left. In these circumstances, campaigns were generally brief, and soldiers were often discharged after only a few weeks or months. In those few instances when soldiers had to be kept under arms throughout the year, the Romans imposed a payment known as tributum, which bore most heavily on the wealthiest citizens, in order to contribute to the soldiers’ support.
Even successful wars could have few permanent results. Some wars were encompassed within a single summer’s campaigning, while others consisted of a series of annual campaigns, each with a different commander and army. Sometimes, campaigns ended in truces that could run for several years.

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